Gunnborn, a Norwegian settler of Iceland, first sighted the island early in the 10th century, but the coastline was not explored until Erik the Red (982), after an earlier settlement attempt by... Read More
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With the return of Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik party, to Russia in April 1917, the new provisional government was under increasing pressure to withdraw from the war. Meanwhile, the Allies... Read More
Italy’s decision to enter the war on the Allied side was governed by what its prime minister, Antonio Salandra, termed ‘sacred egoism’; essentially the Allies promised a victory bonus of... Read More
As the Muslim army of Qalawun threatened the removal of the Franks from Jerusalem in the lead-up to 1291, there was a desperate attempt to recruit new Christian forces from across Europe to defend... Read More
The Latin East was formed after the First Crusade (1095–99), when Christian settlers occupied territories in the Levant, including Jerusalem. Further north, they settled in Tripoli, Edessa and... Read More
The three great empires which dominated eastern Europe and its hinterlands in 1914 were brutally exposed by the realities of modern industrial warfare; each had been overthrown or dismembered by the... Read More
The Third Crusade was Christian Europe’s response to Saladin’s re-conquest of Jerusalem. First to take up the cause was Frederick Barbarossa, the veteran Holy Roman Emperor who set off overland... Read More
In the period from the Treaty of Frankfurt in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I, the European powers were ostensibly at peace but locked in a fierce rivalry which found expression in the New... Read More
At the instigation of Portugal, the Berlin Conference was convened by the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, with 13 European powers and the United States represented. Its purpose was to establish... Read More
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 heralded the final dismantling of Ottoman rule in southern Europe. The Treaty of San Stefano confirmed the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, while... Read More