The three Military Orders, the Teutonic Knights, Knights Templars and Hospitaliers, each came into being in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century. The Templars and Hospitaliers were already well established by the end of the Third Crusade, while the Teutonic Knights were established as a chivalric order during... More
The major centres of Islamic power in the 15th and 16th centuries all drew heavily on slave and mercenary recruitment to their armies. This was, in part, a recognition of fighting qualities, but also an attempt to thwart the development of rival power bases. This strategy sometimes backfired; the Mamluks... More
General Ulysses S. Grant arrived at Milliken’s Bend on 15 January 1863 and embarked upon a restless series of ‘Bayou Operations’, all proving futile, to weave a path through Vicksburg’s formidable natural defences. Eventually, having exhausted every other option, he elected to forge a route through New Carthage to Hard... More
The Battle of Mine Run on 27 November was an inconclusive Union offensive. Union soldiers were to cross the Rapidan River and strike the Confederate’s right flank. This strategy began to fail when a Union corps became bogged down in the river, delaying further Union forces from crossing. General Robert... More
Archaeologists speculate that the Minoan civilization that thrived on the island of Crete from the 16th to 13th centuries BCE was an autonomous development by descendants of Neolithic island-dwellers, rather than an imported civilization. There is evidence that Cretans had extensive trade links, with Africa, Turkey, Cyprus, the Levant and... More
The island of Crete was first settled, probably from Asia Minor, in about 3000 BCE. The distinctive and highly advanced civilization that evolved there by the end of the third millennium, was palace-based, with each palace administering a substantial farming hinterland and trading network. Sir Arthur Evans, the archaeologist who... More
In 1980 the US and USSR both had submersible ships which carried nuclear-powered ballistic missiles. The Cold War showed no signs of thawing and both the US and USSR were engaged in a proxy war in Afghanistan. Although there was no eruption into a ‘hot war’ (direct conflict) both the... More
Vicksburg was the ‘nail that holds the South’s two halves together’, according to the Confederate President Jefferson Davis. In early 1863, Ulysses S. Grant attempted lateral thinking to pry the nail loose. He commissioned a series of attempts to build canals over the De Soto peninsula, north of Vicksburg: each... More
In April 1798 Congress created the Mississippi Territory, which lay to the east of the Mississippi River. It was established on the 31st parallel and created a boundary line between Spanish Florida and the United States. In 1804, its northern boundary was extended to the Tennessee River and in 1812,... More
The mound-building cultures of North America appear to have suffered a ‘Dark Age’ roughly contemporaneous with the European version, with the revival beginning in the lower Mississippi valley in the last quarter of the first millennium. This segued into the Plaquemine culture, but was soon be eclipsed by the middle... More
In 1820, slave-holding states still held a majority in the US Senate. The majority in part derived from the ‘three-fifths’ rule, whereby slaves counted for 60 per cent of free persons in determining representation per state. This precarious advantage was now threatened by the ‘free’ District of Maine’s application for... More
The Moai statues of Easter Island are as emblematic of their homeland as the pyramids are of Egypt, and according to most recent research, began to be erected relatively soon after the arrival of the island’s first human colonists in the 12th century. The statues are carved from tuff (compacted... More