Trotsky abandoned peace talks with Germany in 1918, because he believed his counterparties would soon be swept from power by a Communist revolution sweeping the globe. In fact, the Communists briefly threatened to take power in Germany in January 1919, but were ruthlessly suppressed: an isolated ‘Bavarian Soviet Republic’ lingered... More
Croesus, the king of Lydia from 585 BCE, had a truly gilded inheritance. His father Alyattes extended Lydian dominion over the whole of western Asia Minor (bar the Psidians, corralled in their central mountain fastness), a region rich in produce, prosperous ports and cities and even the River Pactolus from... More
In 1143 the deaths of both the Byzantine Emperor John and King Fulk of Jerusalem created a power vacuum in the Christian Middle East. Hemmed in by hostile Muslim states, Joscelin II, Count of Edessa, needed a Muslim ally; he chose the Artuqids, a Turkmen dynasty, and marched his army... More
After the evacuation at Dunkirk and success in northern France, the Germans focused on moving south, with divisions crossing the Seine as well as turning eastward to isolate the remaining French forces at the Maginot Line. They continued to Paris, with German forces sweeping through eastern and western France, and... More
After the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, a protracted battle for the succession embroiled and, ultimately, partitioned Kievan Rus. Vseslav the Sorcerer, the pagan prince of Polotsk, seized and burned Novgorod and, after Yaroslav’s three sons were defeated in battle by the Turkic Cumans in 1068, he seized... More
Kievan Rus was a loose federation of Slavic lands that had coalesced from the 9th century. This loose Federation of city-states was held together by the family bonds of the ruling princes. The Ruikovichi, who were descended from the Varangian chieftain, Rurik. Vladimir (r. 980-1015) ruled from Kiev, and his... More
The Americans’ ‘Operation Iceberg’ to take Okinawa was the largest amphibious assault of the Pacific War, and the ensuing 82-day ‘Typhoon of Steel’ was its bloodiest battle, costing on both sides over 240,000 dead, more than half being civilians. With American and British aircraft carriers dominant at sea, and having... More
The 1921–22 Russian famine left millions without food and is thought to have killed between five to eight million people. It was at its most devastating in the Volga and Tatar regions and is thought to have been the result of natural and human causes. It began with severe drought... More
Antebellum southern Democrats opposed measures promoting individual land-holding in the West, since such settlers would tend to oppose slavery. Once war began, the unshackled Republicans introduced the Homestead Act (1862), offering lots of 160 acres of undeveloped land for minimal fees. This inspired a rush of westward settlement, which would... More
The severe penalties placed upon the defeated countries of World War I under the Treaty of Versailles fostered conditions that encouraged right wing nationalist political ideologies to flourish. Fascism as a political ideology first emerged in Italy and grew under the leadership of Benito Mussolini, who seized power in 1922... More
Many members of the clergy had cooperated with the anti-Bolshevik White Armies during the Russian civil war of 1918–22 and the Church was subject to severe persecution throughout the 1920s and 1930s, although Soviet figures estimate that one-third of the urban population and two-thirds of the rural population still held... More
By 1925, millions of Americans owned cars. Prior to the rise of the automobile, most roads outside towns and cities were no more than improved wagon trails. Highways tended to be made of cobblestones and confined to major cities. Profit-making organizations formed to fund and build highways, but a lack... More