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Showing 73–84 of 379 results

  • Expansion of Muscovy 1340–1462

    Expansion of Muscovy 1340–1462

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    Expansion of Muscovy 1340–1462

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    Ivan I, Grand Duke of Moscow (1325–40), used his favoured vassal status to the Golden Horde to earn the soubriquet ‘gatherer of Russian lands’, inveigling the Khan to murder his rivals, or using trade monopolies to indebt them and annex their territories. Dmitri Donskoy (1359–89) was more bombastic, going to... More
  • Expansion of Prussia 1815–71

    Expansion of Prussia 1815–71

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    Expansion of Prussia 1815–71

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    At Tilsit (1807), Napoleon ‘had but to raise his hand and Prussia would cease to exist’. The Prussians were helpless bystanders as France and Russia annexed over half their dominions. The critical intervention of Prussia’s most decorated soldier, General Blücher, at Waterloo exacted a sweet revenge on Napoleon; at Vienna... More
  • Expansion of Russia 1598-1914

    Expansion of Russia 1598-1914

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    Expansion of Russia 1598-1914

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    Russian conquests in central Asia were a piecemeal affair, with frequent diversions to more pressing European entanglements. Subduing the Caucasus took a century (1763–1864), and was finally achieved only by forcibly expelling the rebellious Circassians from their mountain strongholds. These campaigns provoked repeated wars with Persia (1804–13, 1826–28). East of... More
  • Expansion of Sparta 8th to 5th Centuries BCE

    Expansion of Sparta 8th to 5th Centuries BCE

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    Expansion of Sparta 8th to 5th Centuries BCE

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    Sparta’s homeland was in Laconia, a Greek city-state in the southern Peloponnese. Run by a military elite who concentrated on warfare and politics, it forbade money-making activity. Each Spartan warrior was given a plot of land, farmed by state slaves (helots). Land was at a premium and in the 8th... More
  • Federal Highway System 1925

    Federal Highway System 1925

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    Federal Highway System 1925

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    In the late 19th century many of America’s roads were ‘wholly unclassable, almost impassable, scarcely jackassable’. The rapid development of a comprehensive railway network had actually resulted in a deterioration, through neglect, in the standard of the nation’s roads. The progenitor of the movement for a Federal Highway system was... More
  • Feudal France 1032

    Feudal France 1032

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    Feudal France 1032

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    At the death of Louis V in 987, the Carolingian dynasty had come to an end and the senior Frankish military commander Hugh Capet (939–996) ascended to the French throne, by election rather than inheritance, founding a new Catholic dynasty that was eventually to rule continuously until the French Revolution.... More
  • Feudal Grant and Obligation Network

    Feudal Grant and Obligation Network

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    Feudal Grant and Obligation Network

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    Under the classic feudal system, absolute, unfettered ownership of land resided solely with the monarch. Directly beneath came tenants-in-chief, the feudal barons granted lands in return for military service and taxation. The main manor or castle of a barony was termed the caput; the barons in turn had the right... More
  • Feudal Holdings in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 12th Century

    Feudal Holdings in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 12th Century

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    Feudal Holdings in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 12th Century

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    The First Crusade achieved the capture of Jerusalem in July 1099, within months of its arrival in Palestine. No clear plan for governing the captured territory was in place. The papal legate Daimbert of Pisa sought the creation of a theocratic state modelled upon and directly controlled by the papacy,... More
  • France 1789

    France 1789

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    France 1789

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    On the eve of Revolution, France had 34 provinces, and fifteen provincial parlements administering and upholding over 300 ‘customary law’ jurisdictions, often to the point of obstructing the efforts of the king and his ministers to achieve reform. The most glaring area in which this obtained was taxation, from which... More
  • France 1814–61

    France 1814–61

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    France 1814–61

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    After the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the Bourbon Restoration in France, which became a constitutional monarchy under Louis XVIII, France’s political geography was reorganized and made uniform; it was divided into over 80 departments, many of which have survived into the 21st century, and power became more centralized. All... More
  • France in 1477

    France in 1477

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    France in 1477

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    In 1461, Louis XI of the House of Valois succeeded to the French throne, determined to strengthen France by reversing decentralization and seizing the lands of rebellious nobles, who were turning their provinces into semi-autonomous regions. Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, was his most formidable antagonist. He was... More
  • France in 1789

    France in 1789

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    France in 1789

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    In 1789, pre-revolutionary France was a jumble of mostly feudal lands, 80 per cent peasant, which had been acquired over preceding centuries. While French was the language of the north, in southern France many only spoke their regional language. The political and administrative structures of pre-revolutionary France were subject to... More