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Showing 25–36 of 122 results

  • Europe c. 2000

    Europe c. 2000

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    Europe c. 2000

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    In 1992, Francis Fukuyama argued in The End of History and the Last Man that Western liberal democracy had become, in effect, the capstone of human socio-political evolution. Europe in 2000 ought perhaps to be Exhibit A for this thesis. The rapid collapse of communism in eastern Europe (1989–91), culminated... More
  • Europe in 1453

    Europe in 1453

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    Europe in 1453

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    The French victory at Castillon (1453) ended the Hundred Years’ War, leaving the defeated English with just the port of Calais as a toehold on the European mainland. In the same year, the long Byzantine resistance to the Ottomans was finally ended with the capture of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmet... More
  • Europe in 1800

    Europe in 1800

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    Europe in 1800

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    The elective monarchies of central Europe appeared increasingly quaint when set against the ruthless Realpolitik of ‘enlightened’ despots such as Catherine the Great of Russia, and Frederick the Great of Prussia. Poland was partitioned out of existence (1772–95), while the millennium-long survival of the Holy Roman Empire and the Venetian... More
  • Europe in 1900

    Europe in 1900

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    Europe in 1900

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    Prussian military victories over Austria (1866) and France (1871) reshaped the map of central Europe, spurring the formation of Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867), and the conversion of the German Confederation into an Empire dominated by Prussia and their guileful Chancellor, Bismarck. With Germany and Italy each achieving unification in 1871, the... More
  • Europe in 2000

    Europe in 2000

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    Europe in 2000

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    The map of Europe remained unchanged, but 1989 was a year of revolutions, sweeping away Communist rule in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania. Later, borders would change, with German reunification in 1990, and the disintegration of Yugoslavia: after a decade of war in the 1990s, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and... More
  • France 1789

    France 1789

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    France 1789

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    On the eve of Revolution, France had 34 provinces, and fifteen provincial parlements administering and upholding over 300 ‘customary law’ jurisdictions, often to the point of obstructing the efforts of the king and his ministers to achieve reform. The most glaring area in which this obtained was taxation, from which... More
  • France 1791

    France 1791

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    France 1791

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    The Constituent National Assembly introduced the départements in 1790 as a perfect expression of Revolutionary iconoclasm and rationalism. The old provinces were intentionally eliminated in both name and form. Their accretion of historical happenstance, accumulated privileges and ‘customary law’ jurisdictions had epitomized the defects of the Ancien Régime and was... More
  • French Guinea 1990

    French Guinea 1990

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    French Guinea 1990

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    The mineral-rich colony of French Guinea (part of French West Africa) was made independent in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Touré severed all links with France and turned Guinea into a Marxist republic and, until the military coup in 1984, Guinea was run as a dictatorship.... More
  • German Unification 1815–71

    German Unification 1815–71

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    German Unification 1815–71

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    The experience of collective subjection under Napoleonic rule awakened a spirit of German nationalism for long dissipated in the dynastic patchwork quilt of the Holy Roman Empire. After liberation, the establishment of a Customs Union (1834) and a common rail network have been described as the ‘Siamese Twins’ facilitating the... More
  • Germany 1990

    Germany 1990

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    Germany 1990

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    Germany’s partition occurred through Allied negotiation at the end of World War II. The East came under Soviet control, with further partition of the city of Berlin into Western and Eastern Zones of occupation. From 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev introduced liberalizing policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) designed to avert... More
  • Gran Colombia 1819-30

    Gran Colombia 1819-30

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    Gran Colombia 1819-30

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    Simón Bolívar, a soldier and statesman known as “The Liberator”, led the revolutions against Spanish rule in the northern regions of South America. His military career began in 1810, when he fought in support of Venezuelan independence. However, his efforts failed, and he fled abroad in 1815, returning to Venezuela... More
  • Grand Duchy of Warsaw 1810

    Grand Duchy of Warsaw 1810

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    Grand Duchy of Warsaw 1810

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    After the third partition in 1795, Polish populations remained concentrated in the annexed territories and were keen to have their sovereignty restored. Many fought with Napoleon against Austria, Russia and Prussia, now a prominent German state, the partitioning powers. They believed that if they supported Napoleon they would (as a... More