The Allied force left Pearl Harbour on 5 June 1944, and ten days later American marines were storming the beaches of Saipan Island, with the aim of securing a base in the Pacific from which the US could attack the Japanese mainland. Under heavy gunfire, and sustaining heavy losses, 20,000... More
Diversionary landings to the south failed to lure significant numbers of German troops away from the west coast neat Salerno in Campania, southern Italy. Additionally, the Allies commenced the attack, on 9 September, without prior naval artillery bombardment, hoping to maintain the element of surprise. The main German defensive groupings... More
The Sassanian Empire enjoyed a newfound level of prosperity under the reforms of Khosrau I. It was engaged in frequent conflict with the Byzantine Empire on its western border, with sporadic raids by the White Huns in the north. The Byzantine Emperor Maurice, who had aided the new Sassanian Emperor... More
The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were located between Denmark and Prussia and had, for much of their history, been dynastically interlinked, and within the gift of the Danish Crown. However, the rules of succession in Schleswig prescribed only male heirs could inherit. When the childless Frederick VII became king... More
Postwar Germany overwhelmingly ascribed their ultimate defeat to the failure of Field Marshal von Moltke to adhere to the Schlieffen Plan. This plan, prepared in 1905, dictated a lightning strike with overwhelming force on the western front, rapidly capturing Paris and neutralizing France, thence enabling German forces to concentrate on... More
The medieval Scottish Church held a unique position within the Catholic Church. While it was not awarded an archbishopric (Ireland had four), its ten bishoprics were conferred the status of ‘special daughters of Rome’ by the Bull Cum Universi (1192) of Pope Celestine III. This insulated the Scottish Church from... More
Despite its uncompromising reputation, the Presbyterian Reformation in Scotland was implemented with far more tolerance than was displayed south of the border. Monasteries were not abruptly dissolved with their assets seized for the royal coffers, but simply allowed to die out with their residents. Similarly, the process of conversion of... More
The ‘Sea Peoples’ are known only from references in contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records. Their identity and place of origin, while much speculated upon, remains unknown. Hypotheses have proposed that they were Anatolian, Minoan or Philistines. The fact that they were allied to the Libyans in some of their attacks... More
Before the Civil War the predecessor route to the Seaboard Air Line shipped plantation cotton and tobacco to the port of Portsmouth. After the Stock Market Crash of 1873, the Seaboard’s proprietor, John M. Robinson acquired two further inland routes from Raleigh. Robinson’s successors, the Williams family, extended the network... More
The seven most southerly US states had declared secession by the end of January, 1861; they would be joined by their immediate neighbours to the north, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas, in the wake of the first hostilities at Fort Sumter. Within each state, support for secession was often... More
The Second Crusade was triggered by the fall of Edessa to the Muslim warlord Zengi. It had a promising start when it was led for the first time by European kings. Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, along with fellow nobility, commanded contingents from across Christian Europe.... More
The Second Macedonian War in 202 BCE was between Macedonia and Rome. Philip V of Macedonia began laying siege to the Greek city-states in the Aegean, having formed an alliance with Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. Both Philip V and Antiochus III were keen to expand their empires and... More