The Cambrian period succeeded the breakup of the global supercontinent, Pannotia. Its remaining contiguous landmass, Gondwanaland, stretched from the southern polar regions to the Tropic of Cancer. To the west, a ribbon of continents straddled the southern tropics: Avalonia, Baltica, Siberia, and Laurentia. The overall mean global temperatures in the... More
1861 was, overall, evenly balanced. On the battlefield, the Confederacy had triumphed at the First Battle of Bull Run but failed to exploit their victory. Meanwhile, the Union’s ‘Anaconda Plan’, a full naval blockade, was devastating southern trade and, consequently, its ability to finance a long war. In spring 1862,... More
In spring 1863 the Union forces forced Vicksburg and Port Hudson to surrender, giving them control of the Mississippi and accomplishing the objective of splitting the Confederate forces in two. The Union army forced the Confederates to leave Gettysburg in the North and retreat to Virginia. In East Tennessee, the... More
Although the Ancient Egyptian propaganda machine declared Ramesses II’s Kadesh campaigns a victory, neither the Hittites or Egyptians were victors. In year 4 of his kingship, Ramesses reclaimed the Hittite vassal kingdom of Kadesh, installing the elite Ne’arim mercenaries to hold the port at Sumur. During year 5, the Hittites... More
After its decisive victory over Athens in 404 BCE, Sparta became the dominant Greek city-state. In 387 BCE, it used its dominance to force the disbandment of the Boeotian League, a Greek sovereign alliance over which Thebes had previously presided, and in 382 BCE imposed a Spartan garrison in Thebes... More
The most well-known campaigns of the Persian emperor, Xerxes, were fought during his invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. These were the battles of Thermopylae, Artemisium and Salamis. In 485 BCE, Xerxes acceded to the throne upon the death of his father, Darius the Great. Xerxes inherited a Persian empire... More
After leaving Ypres, the Canadian Corps moved to the Somme valley to support the Allied forces, who were sustaining massive losses in their futile attempts to break through German lines. On 15 September 1916, three divisions of the Canadian Corps neutralized the German defences in the ruined French village of... More
The burgeoning population and commerce resulting from the Industrial Revolution placed an immense strain on an internal transport network reliant on rivers, and often ill-maintained roads. While turnpike trusts greatly improved the coverage and quality of roads, more volume was still required, and was met initially by river navigation systems... More
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) founded the Cape Colony in 1652 as a way-station on the route to the Indies. After the colonists almost starved in 1654, the VOC released some colonists from their contracts, and granted them lands to farm. These 'free burghers' rapidly extended the boundaries of... More
Perhaps the most crucial moments of the Gallipoli Offensive were on Beaches X, S and Y on Cape Helles after the Allied troops successfully landed on 25 April. While the other two landings on the head of the Cape were decimated by heavy Ottoman fire, these sites were lightly defended... More
Following James I’s Virginia Charter of 1609, in 1663 (extended 1665) English King Charles II issued the ‘Carolina Charters’ granting rights over a new province bearing his latinized name and comprising the land between the Virginia Colony to the north and Spanish Florida to the south. Eight wealthy English ‘Lords... More
The 1942 German Summer Offensive, known as Case Blue (Fall Blau), aimed to capitalize on momentum on the eastern front, using a two-pronged offensive to push into southern Russia and the Caucasus. Army Group South was split into Army Group A, assigned to the Caucasus, and Army Group B, assigned... More