The turn of the 17th century was sandwiched between the Great Turkish War (1683–97), which effectively ended Ottoman expansion into Europe, and the Great Northern War (1700–21), through which... Read More
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In the late 16th century, elective monarchy appeared an increasingly successful model for governance. In the Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth, the enshrinement of the powers of the nobility in the... Read More
While the Renaissance reached a crescendo in its Italian heartland, the balance of political power shifted towards the continental periphery. In the east, the fall of Constantinople (1453) opened the... Read More
In 1598 the Edict of Nantes ended the French Wars of Religion. The Edict granted French Huguenots (Protestants) religious toleration, as well as equal status in French society. The Huguenots’... Read More
On 12 July 1806, after ten years of diplomatic wooing, sixteen German client states, which included Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and Berg, signed the Treaty of the... Read More
After the third partition of Poland, settled on 26 January 1797, Poland disappeared from the map of Europe and its lands were divided between Prussia, the Habsburg Dominions, and the Russian Empire.... Read More
The period of spiritual, intellectual, cultural and moral revival within the Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries is known as the Counter-Reformation. It was not merely a reaction to the... Read More
The Reformation emerged against a background of growing criticism of the temporal power and wealth of the Roman Catholic Church. This perceived corruption was epitomized by practices such as the... Read More
Johannes Gutenberg was a goldsmith in Mainz, who managed, after years of painstaking experiment, to perfect the manufacture of small metal movable type. Guttenberg produced 200 copies of his... Read More
The Mongol tribes of northern China coalesced into the Mongol empire under the rule of Genghis Khan (? 1167–1227) in 1206. He set in motion a series of invasions that would reverberate in Europe... Read More